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Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC) – Chinese History: Ancient …

Kang predicted that in a hundred years the world’s major problem would be the struggle between the rich and poor. He believed that the only way to solve that conflict was to eliminate the family and people’s drive for private property. He foresaw that racial intermarriages on a global scale would eventually merge humanity into one race. In his Great Community the state would distribute resources and provide education from before birth through twenty years of schooling, life-long health care, and homes for the dying. Kang emphasized the equality of men and women, and he castigated men for not letting women participate in social and political life. After the age of twenty any person could choose a marriage contract for not less than one month nor for more than one year, although contracts could be renewed annually. Those of the same sex could also make such contracts. Kang realized that his ideas were too advanced for his time and so only shared them with a few students.

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After the Boxer disaster, Sun Yat-sen’s ideas for revolution gained more support. Students in Japan published the and to promote revolution. In 1902 Cai Yuanpei and Zhang Binglin organized the Chinese Educational Association (Zhongguo jiaoyuhui), and that year Zhang published his revised essays as . His ideas on national revolution were based on the philosophy of the historian Wang Fuzhi (1619-92). Zhang argued that the Manchus had falsified the past and deprived the Chinese of their national consciousness, and so they must restore their culture and eject the Manchus. When Russia refused to evacuate southern Manchuria in 1903, Huang Xing and some Chinese students in Tokyo organized a Resist Russia Corps. When the Japanese government dissolved it, they formed the Association for Military Education.

Chinese literature - Qin and Han dynasties: 221 bce–220 …

Hunan was reformed by Governor Wu Dacheng (1892-95), and he was succeeded by the progressive Chen Baozhen. His Bureau of Protection and Defense established a modern police force, and effort was made to reform and educate criminals. The China Reform Association published and the . Jiang Biao was commissioner of education in Hunan from 1895 to 1897, and he emphasized a balance between Chinese traditions and Western knowledge. The School of Current Affairs began at Changsha in the fall of 1897. Liang became a chief lecturer, and he was assisted by Kang’s disciples. Xu Renzhu succeeded Jiang as commissioner and was even more devoted to Kang’s teachings. Liang had thousands of copies printed of books that criticized despotism and Manchu atrocities. He urged the Governor to declare Hunan independent just as Satsuma and Choshu had seceded from Tokugawa Japan prior to the Meiji reforms. They formed the Southern Study Society, which grew to 1,200 members. Those opposed drafted the Scholars’ Compact of Hunan in the summer of 1898. Most of the gentry did not want the Qing dynasty to collapse, denounced equality, and petitioned Governor Chen to expel Liang and his friends. Chen asked the Chinese court to ban Kang’s . Huang Zunxian published his in 1897, and he invited Liang to Shanghai to edit a journal for the Self-Strengthening Society.

Ming Dynasty - New World Encyclopedia

Kang Youwei and Liang organized the Society for the Study of National Strengthening in September 1895, and Zhang Zhidong contributed 5,000 taels. Liang edited the daily , which had a circulation of 2,000, and they were influenced by the missionary Timothy Richard. Kang went to Shanghai to open a branch and began publishing the . Zhang offered to contribute again, but he objected to their using a calendar from the reign of instead of the Qing dynasty. In January 1896 the Chinese court ordered the organization closed. In August they began publishing the weekly , and in a few months circulation passed 10,000. Kang traveled and helped found study societies, schools, and newspapers in Hunan, Jiangsu, Guangdong, and Beijing. Within three years 76 study societies had formed.

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Five days later Emperor Guangxu ordered that Kang could present memorials directly any time, and on that day he presented his sixth memorial suggesting a bureau to draft a constitution and twelve administrative bureaus. Each province should have a People’s Bureau with district branches. With his seventh memorial in February he included studies of the reforms made by Meiji and Peter and Richard’s translation of “An Outline of New Western History.” During the triennial exams in April he organized the National Protection Society, which was joined by hundreds of graduates and government officials. Their goals were to protect the people, religion, sovereignty and territory of China, promote institutional reform, discuss foreign relations, and study political economy. Many Manchu officials feared they wanted to protect China but not the Qing dynasty, and conservative attacks reduced attendance.

Chinese Imperial Examination System

Aristocracy-by-examination had far-reaching consequences. A high degree of national stability was ensured despite changes of emperor and dynasty because the civil service, fuelled by the exam system, could continue independently of the imperial regime. Even China's foreign conquerors, the Mongols and the Manchu, realised the benefits of the examination system. Despite denigrating Han Chinese scholars as the “Stinking Ninth” in their social ranking, the Mongols of the retained the system. The Manchu tribesmen who captured Beijing in 1644 to found the restored the civil service examinations only two years later, and although they excluded Han Chinese from the highest echelons of the Civil Service, they clearly recognised the adhesive value of the exams in binding the Han intelligentsia to the Qing regime.